Research Papers
This page sets out the English summaries of the Research Papers
published by the Reference and Research Services. A link from the
end of the summary will take you to the complete research paper in
German.
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Award of the Point Alpha Prize
In 2010, twenty years after German reunification, the Point Alpha Prize, awarded by the Kuratorium Deutsche Einheit in honour of "contributions to the unity of Germany and Europe in peace and liberty", is to be presented to former Federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt. The prize is endowed with 25,000 euros and will be presented on 17 June 2010 at the Point Alpha memorial site, which is funded through the Point Alpha Foundation. -
Health reform in the USA
The US President has signed into law a bill introducing a reform of healthcare. In future, all Americans will have access to health insurance: from 2014, every citizen will be required to have basic health insurance. The costs of the measures are to be covered by reducing expenditure and introducing tax increases for higher-earners. -
Current political developments in Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan's most recent internal crisis has made it the subject of international attention. This crisis led at the beginning of April 2010 to the ousting of the previous President, Kurmanbek Bakiyev, by the opposition. The interim government is currently overseeing the drafting of a new constitution, aimed at significantly reducing the President's political influence and reinforcing the rights of Parliament. On 27 June 2010, a vote is to take place on the new constitutional draft, whilst parliamentary elections are to take place in October 2010. -
History of the World Cup
From 11 June to 11 July 2010, the 19th World Cup Finals are taking place in South Africa. This is the first time that the World Cup has been held on the African continent. This competition, which is the most important international football tournament for national teams, has been organised since 1930 by FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association: International Federation of Association Football). Every four years, the World Cup is held in a different country. Since the event began to be televised live in the 1950s, the World Cup has developed into a global sporting event. In addition, the last few decades have seen it develop into a major commercial event. -
The 14th Federal Convention on 30 June 2010
On 30 June, the 14th Federal Convention will elect the Federal President. The Convention is made up of all the Members of the Bundestag (622) and the same number of members elected by the Parliaments in the Länder (federal states). In total therefore, the Federal Convention is composed of 1244 delegates. The Federal President is elected in a secret vote. In order to be elected as President, a candidate must gain an absolute majority in the first or second round of voting or a simple majority in the third round. -
The first Review Conference of the International Criminal Court: Towards a definition of the crime of aggression
From 31 May to 11 June 2010, the first Review Conference of the International Criminal Court will take place in Kampala. The most prominent issue for deliberation will be the definition of the crime of aggression. This Topical Term sets out the current state of negotiations concerning the definition of elements of the crime of aggression and the question of the role to be played by the United Nations. -
Forty years of the German Association for Parliamentary Issues
On 21 January 1970, the German Association for Parliamentary Issues (DVParl) was founded. In the forty years since the association's establishment, it has been successful in analysing with a critical eye parliamentary events and contributing to a deeper understanding of parliamentarianism. The Association has been able to link theory and practice and use its debates to work towards adequate reforms of our parliamentary system. -
Amendments to the Federal Nature Conservation Act and the Federal Water Act
The Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) and the Federal Water Act (WHG) have been comprehensively revised, with the new versions entering into force on 1 March 2010. Following the 2006 reform of the federal system, these areas now fall into the category of "concurrent legislation", meaning that the Länder may enact laws at variance with federal legislation. This does not apply, however, for general principles governing nature protection, the law on protection of plant and animal species or the law on protection of marine life, or with regard to regulations concerning materials or facilities in the area of management of water resources. It is always the law enacted most recently which applies, regardless of whether the law in question is a federal law or one enacted at Land level. Until such point as the Länder have enacted their own laws on nature protection and management of water resources, the old Länder laws must be applied, insofar as the federal laws do not contain any provisions in the individual areas concerned. The scope of the norms where no derogation is allowed in currently unclear. -
European External Action Service
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European Union public health policy
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Elections to the House of Commons in the United Kingdom
The make-up of the British House of Commons reflects a two-party system; MPs in the constituencies, of which there are currently 650, are elected to the House of Commons on the basis of a first-past-the-post system. In other words, the number of seats a party gains in Parliament depends solely on the number of constituencies which it wins directly. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen, rather than being elected by the House of Commons. A situation in which none of the parties gains a majority is known as a "Hung Parliament". In the absence of clear majorities in the House of Commons, the incumbent Prime Minister remains in office until such time as he or she resigns, loses a vote of no confidence, or is forced out by a vote of no-confidence. -
Bilateral financial assistance for Greece
Against the background of the support mechanism for Greece agreed by the Member States of the eurozone and the International Monetary Fund, a debate is underway amongst legal and political experts concerning the scope of the "No-Bail-Out-Clause" contained in Article 125 (1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. This Factsheet provides an overview of the different opinions within the debate. It concludes with a description of the opportunities for legal redress if Member States fail to meet their obligations as laid down in the Treaties. -
European citizens' initiative
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Electromobility
On 19 August 2009, the Federal Government launched its national development plan for electromobility, with the aim of seeing at least a million new electric vehicles on the roads by 2020. Five million euros were made available for relevant research programmes as part of the second economic recovery package. This Topical Term sets out the current state of technological development. -
Assessment of pharmaceutical products in the UK
The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) assesses established and new medical technologies and procedures and makes recommendations for health practitioners in England, Northern Ireland and Wales. The work of this institute, which is regarded as a world leader, focuses mainly on analysing the cost-benefit ratio of pharmaceuticals. A similar organisation to assess the benefits of medical products exists in Scotland. -
The "electronic proof of earnings" (ELENA) system
In Germany, the collection of information on people's earned income is necessary for the calculation of benefits within the social security system and is required by law. In the past, the information has been collected in paper form. In 2002, the commission on modern services in the labour market proposed the introduction of a system designed to allow the central storage of data on employees and the use of this data by the responsible authorities. The system was entitled Elektronischer Entgeltnachweis (ELENA) ? "Electronic proof of earnings". Since 1 January 2010, employers have forwarded employee data; from 2012 onwards, the idea is that employees will be able to apply for all social-security benefits using the signature card. Advocates of the ELENA system expect it to simplify and speed up the transfer and storage of data, as well as cutting red tape and reducing the burden of costs for businesses. Critics of the project would like data to be stored in the traditional way and have raised concerns regarding data protection. They have now taken the matter to the Federal Constitutional Court. -
Evidence-based medicine
Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of the best available scientific evidence and studies in decisions relating to the medical care of individual patients. The German Network for Evidence Based Medicine (DNEbM) and the Cochrane Collaboration support the further development and spread of the concepts, principles and methods of EBM in clinical practice, teaching and research. -
Logib-D ? Pay equality in businesses in Germany
The German abbreviation "Logib-D" stands for "Lohngleichheit im Betrieb - Deutschland" (pay equality in businesses - Germany), and is the name of software allowing businesses to analyse their pay structures with regard to gender-specific differences. As women in German currently earn 23% less than men on average, the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth has made available the Logib-D programme online as a free, anonymous self-test. This service is intended to help companies to identify and eliminate pay inequality in their businesses. In this way, wage differences between men and women which are due solely to gender are to be reduced. -
Military bishops in Germany - History and organisation
Even before the first units of the Bundeswehr were established in 1955, the Protestant and Catholic churches had both more or less reached agreement with the Federal Government on the establishment of military chaplaincy services, to be headed by one Catholic and one Protestant military bishop. In this system, the church bodies are autonomous from the state bodies in terms of staffing and organisation. In line with the military-chaplaincy contract entered into by the Federal Government and the Council of the EKD (Evangelical Church in Germany), the Protestant bishop concerned is appointed by the EKD Council in agreement with the Conference of Churches. Prior to this appointment, the EKD Council must ensure that the Federal Government has no objections to the proposed person. The appointment of the Catholic military bishop is based on the 1933 Concordat and the provisions enacted on this basis. In line with this Concordat, a diocesan bishop who is resident in Germany is appointed by the Pope, in agreement with the state. As well as leading the military chaplaincy on behalf of the churches, these military bishops are intended to advise state bodies on chaplaincy issues. The Protestant military bishop, in line with the above contract, can be recalled at any time for important church-related reasons. The EKD Council should give the Federal Government prior notice of a decision to recall its military bishop; the Federal Government has no right to influence this decision, however. The Catholic military bishop can only be recalled on the basis of the Corpus Juris Canonici. In this case too, there is no state involvement. The only way in which the state might, hypothetically, have a say on recalling a bishop is on the basis of the "legal obligation for peaceful agreement with regard to the force of contractual agreements". -
Sport Policy of the European Union
The EU's involvement in sport policy has revolved around its economic aspects but with the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty on 1 December 2009, Europe now has a legal base to provide a supporting role to member states in the social, educational and cultural aspects of sport. The EU is now starting major preparations for the successful implementation of Europe's new competence on sport and the development of a first EU programme to be launched in 2012. -
The European Commission?s Work Programme for 2010
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Extending the operating lives of nuclear power plants
The parliamentary groups supporting the government agreed in the coalition agreement to produce an integrated energy policy concept. Research institutes were commissioned to outline various energy scenarios. They carried out calculations involving an extension of the operating lives of nuclear power plants by 4, 12, 20 and 28 years. A decision on the energy concept as a whole is to be taken in the autumn of 2010. A potential extension of the operating lives of nuclear power plants raises the question of a change in the current consensus on nuclear energy policy. -
Initiative for Excellence
The Initiative for Excellence is a programme to promote world-class research at German universities, agreed by the Federation and the Länder (federal states) in 2005. The aim of the programme is to strengthen for the long term Germany?s position as a location for research and make it more competitive. In addition to supporting world-class research, the Initiative for Excellence is intended to ensure higher quality more broadly. For the first phase, from 2006 to 2011, 1.9 billion euros are being made available. Seventy-five per cent of the costs are being borne by the Federation, and twenty-five per cent by the Länder. The universities can apply for funding in three categories: - to develop graduate schools offering PhD programmes for young academics, - to establish "excellence clusters" which comprise competitive research and training institutions with an international reputation, and - to develop future strategies to expand world-class research at universities. While funding for future strategies is reserved for a small number of universities, both of the other categories allow broad-based participation. -
Cost-control mechanisms for the pharmaceuticals market
This issue of the Topical Term sets out the most important cost-control mechanisms for the market in pharmaceutical products. These include the "negative list" of drugs classified as ineffective or not representing value for money, regulations on the maximum reimbursement rates for drugs, maximum rates for innovative new drugs, regulations on discounts, and rules for doctors regarding prescriptions. -
Leave to care for family members
Kristina Schröder, Federal Minister for Family Affairs, announced in early March 2010 that she planned to submit a bill reforming the regulations on leave to care for family members. The new model is intended to allow employees to care for relatives in need of long-term care at home, while at the same time ensuring they retain their financial security and their jobs. An entitlement for employees to take two years? leave to care for close relatives is to be enshrined in law. During these two years, employees would reduce their working hours by 50% and receive 75% of their pay. After the end of the leave, they would return to working full-time and would continue to receive only 75% of their pay until the number of hours worked and amount of pay received were back in balance. The new model has been the target of significant criticism. -
The German Film Award and the German Film Academy
The German Film Award (known as "Lola") is the most prestigious and most highly endowed German movie award. The Federal Commissioner for Culture and the Media allocates three million euros each year. Since 2005 the winners have been selected by the German Film Academy ("Deutsche Filmakademie"), a forum comprising approximately 1100 German film professionals which was founded in 2003. -
Mobile Internet
The use of smartphones and other mobile devices with access to the internet has recently been growing strongly, especially among private users. This development is due to innovations in access devices and access technology, being able to cope with the vast increase of data volume being transferred as photographs, videos, or geographical data through the internet. -
Body scanner
Since the foiled terror attack in Detroit, politicians and society discuss whether the usage of body scanners contributes to the improvement of aviation safety. Body scanners measure reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation and can detect objects hidden under clothing and display them on a screen. However, they show the body contours pin sharp. That was the reason for political opposition, when the European Commission made plans to allow the deployment in September 2008. The European Parliament and all parties of the Bundestag were concerned that the usage could be an excessive intrusion into the privacy and freedom of religion and could threaten the dignity of man, which was absolutely enshrined in Article 1 of the Basic Law. A testing phase has begun with the purpose to modify scanners so that they both maintain the passengers privacy and dignity, but also identify dangers efficiently. Experts advise to use passive terahertz radiation, which is considered to be medically not dangerous. After the completion of various research projects, the first test versions are expected to be deployed in German airports in mid-2010. -
Renewables levy 2010
The renewables levy (EEG-Umlage) is the portion of the electricity price that must be paid by the end user towards the subsidisation of renewable energies. It results from the equalisation scheme which is described in the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG). The Equalisation Scheme Ordinance (AusglMechV) of 17 July 2009 has changed the way the costs for subsidising electricity generated from renewable energy sources are levied and passed on, with effect from 2010. The renewables levy set at 2.047 cents/kWh will now be paid by the energy supply companies to the transmission system operators and charged to the end users. The Equalisation Scheme Ordinance requires that the transmission system operators set the renewables levy on 15 October each year for the following year. -
Representative electoral statistics - Bundestag elections 2009
The Electoral Statistics Act (WStatG) requires that the results of elections to the German Bundestag be assessed by means of both general and representative electoral statistics. The representative voting statistics provide a breakdown by age and sex of both voter turnout and votes cast. For this purpose the ballot papers in representative sample polling districts are given distinguishing marks to show sex and five different age groups in a way that preserves voter secrecy, and are counted according to the votes cast for individual parties. In addition, the voter turnout is analysed according to sex and ten age groups through the counting of the voters and non-voters recorded on the electoral registers. -
Expansion of publicly subsidised employment Arguments, positions and experience
Publicly subsidised employment is intended for people who are not expected to become integrated into the regular labour market in the foreseeable future. Since this section of the population is continually growing, there are increasing calls for the expansion of publicly subsidised employment. Good reasons for this approach are put from both labour-market and social policy perspectives, while opponents point out the dangers for the labour market and competition. The study provides an overview of academic opinion and political positions as well as the arguments of those administering the schemes in practice, and describes examples in both Germany and abroad. -
18 March 1848 - Outbreak of the civil revolution in Berlin
The use of force by Prussian troops against peacefully demonstrating citizens on 18 March 1848 in Berlin led to the erection of barricades and violent street battles. The King of Prussia finally yielded to the revolutionaries? demands for national unity and the convening of a National Assembly. Although the revolution failed just a few months later due to internal differences and the resurgence of the reactionary forces, the revolutionaries of 1848/49 laid the foundations for the development of the rule of law, democracy and a unified nation-state in Germany. -
The 20th anniversary of the People?s Chamber elections of 18 March 1990
elections in the history of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The holding of free elections was a key achievement of the opposition movement in the peaceful revolution. The clear winners of the election, with around 48% of the vote, were the parties that had formed the Alliance for Germany. On 12 April 1990, Lothar de Maizière, the CDU?s candidate for the top post, was elected premier (Ministerpräsident) of the GDR by the People?s Chamber. He headed a coalition government formed by the parties of the Alliance for Germany, the League of Free Democrats and the SPD. -
The Members of the tenth People?s Chamber of the GDR
On 18 March 1990, free elections were held for the first time for the now 400 seats in the People?s Chamber of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). A total of 409 people were Members of the first freely elected People?s Chamber of the GDR: the 400 who were returned in the elections of 18 March 1990 plus another nine Members who entered the People?s Chamber as first reserves on the party list when one of their party?s seats fell vacant. Because it was freely elected for the first time, but also because of its social composition, the tenth People?s Chamber can be regarded as a parliament of renewal which played a vital steering role in the eventful period of the new political beginning. -
The freely elected People?s Chamber - parliamentary achievements
The first free elections to the People?s Chamber (Volkskammer) of the German Democratic Republic on 18 March 1990 completely transformed the character of that Parliament. Under the dictatorship of the Socialist Unity Party (SED), the People?s Chamber had been a sham parliament which, with one single exception, had always rubber-stamped the decisions of the state and party leaders until the peaceful revolution in the autumn of 1989. Now it transformed itself into a democratic parliament, whose members tackled a massive workload to carve out the path to the unification of Germany. -
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a general term for anything that involves delivering hosted services over the Internet. These services are broadly divided into three categories: Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS), Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) and Software-as-a-Service (SaaS). Research institutions, cloud providers and government organizations are investing in research around the topic of cloud computing. Cloud computing is identified as one of the emerging applications, which is likely to have a very big impact on businesses and governments. -
Network neutrality
Network neutrality (also net neutrality, Internet neutrality) is a principle proposed for Internet access that advocates no restrictions on content, sites, or platforms. This principle follows the assumption that the net works best when Internet Service Provider (ISP) deliver every Internet site's traffic without discrimination. The danger is that the Internet might be split into a fast lane and a slow lane. Proponents of the principle of neutrality call for new legislation or regulation to protect network neutrality. -
TMF - a common platform for medical research networks
The Telematikplattform für medizinische Forschungsnetze (TMF) brings together inter-regional networks in the field of medical research. The aim is to enhance the organisation and infrastructure of medical research in interlinked structures. The TMF enables interdisciplinary and cross-institutional cooperation between the research networks via various projects which encompass research, IT infrastructure, data protection, quality management, biobanking and questions relating to network management and public relations. The TMF is a registered association funded primarily via membership dues. -
The Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG)
This issue of the Topical Term sets out the legal foundations, structure and work procedures of the independent scientific Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). The Institute investigates the benefits and harm of medical interventions for patients, provides information about the advantages and disadvantages of different therapeutic and diagnostic services, and produces a cost-benefit analysis of drugs. The IQWiG does not carry out trials itself; instead it searches international literature for trials and reviews them. The Institute transmits its assessments to the Federal Joint Committee as recommendations. -
The Societies for Christian-Jewish Cooperation and the Week of Brotherhood
In 2010, the "Week of Brotherhood" organised by the societies for Christian-Jewish Cooperation which form the German Coordinating Council is being held from 7 to 14 March with the theme of "lost yardsticks". Architect Daniel Libeskind is this year?s recipient of the Buber-Rosenzweig Medal, which has been awarded during the Week of Brotherhood by the German Coordinating Council since 1968. -
Global public goods
Global public goods are goods which benefit everyone and are non-excludable (in other words, no one can or should be excluded from them). The benefits they offer are global in scope. Since the world is becoming more interdependent, public goods can in many cases no longer be provided solely at national level today; instead, it is necessary for many stakeholders to work together worldwide. Existing strategies for the provision of public goods must therefore be re-evaluated and discussed at international level. A framework of reference is provided for this discussion by the concept of GPGs, a normative concept with implications for political action and a transnational perspective. -
Anonymous relinquishment of infants - Opinion issued by the German Ethics Council
In its first Opinion, dated 26 November 2009, the German Ethics Council examined the problem of the anonymous relinquishment of infants. It recommends that "baby hatches" and other previously tolerated facilities for anonymous birth should be abolished, in particular because, the Council argues, they violate the children?s fundamental right to a knowledge of their origins and to a relationship with their birth parents. The public information available about the existing legally permitted facilities for helping pregnant women and mothers in emergencies or a conflict situation should be strengthened and expanded, and it should be ensured that these facilities are "low threshold", with easy access for all. In addition, the German Ethics Council suggests the introduction of legislation to allow "the confidential relinquishment of infants with temporarily anonymous registration". -
The threat to biodiversity from invasive alien species
The "International Year of Biodiversity" is intended to raise political and public awareness of the threat to biodiversity and its significance for human welfare and economic development. Invasive alien species are considered one of the biggest threats to biodiversity. Once they have been introduced, it is almost impossible to limit the spread of these species or eliminate them. Taking ballast water as an example, this issue of the Topical Term shows how difficult it is to prevent and control the introduction of invasive species - particularly in the context of global transport and trade. -
"The evidence is admissible" Rulings on the admissibility of evidence in the case of "data theft" in the "Liechtenstein case"
A public debate is currently taking place in Germany regarding whether it is permissible for data obtained illegally by individuals to be purchased by the German authorities and subsequently be used as evidence in criminal proceedings. Against this background, this information bulletin documents two relevant criminal court rulings which, following the purchase by the Federal Intelligence Service of data from a Liechtenstein bank in 2007, concluded that the evidence was admissible. -
The Community of the Cross of Nails
Following the end of the Second World War, the cross of nails of the ruined Coventry Cathedral became a symbol of the ideal of reconciliation. In the night of 14 to 15 November 1940, 449 German bombers reduced the city in central England almost entirely to rubble. Today, crosses of nails from the medieval wooden beams of the ruined cathedral are presented by the Parish of St. Michael in Coventry to parishes, institutions and associations which identify with what happened in Coventry and to the ideal of reconciliation. Fifty "Cross of Nails Centres" in Germany belong to the global Community of the Cross of Nails. Crosses of Nails can today be found on the altars of St. Michael?s and of the Frauenkirche in Dresden. -
Voluntary service in Germany
Voluntary service is aimed at young people aged between 16 and 30. Their voluntary work takes place primarily with organisations serving society or the public good, and generally represents a full-time commitment. The service lasts between six and twelve months. Voluntary service can be carried out within Germany or abroad. Various forms of voluntary service are available. Depending on the organisation concerned, there are a range of projects where the young people can carry out their service. Some forms of voluntary service can also replace civilian service. -
German periods of notice for young employees incompatible with EU law
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Anti-Doping strategies in comparative perspective
The essay attempts to examine and describe the anti-doping work in comparative perspective. The commercialisation of sports and the increasing physical demands on athletes contribute to a doping-prone environment. Rules prohibiting or restraining the use of doping were originally drawn up by sport federations, but are now increasingly found in national legislation and even in international or European treaty law. The way the matter is approached varies from country to country. However, a well-developed anti-doping policy consists of more than just controls and verdicts. Thus prevention should become an important issue of anti-doping policy. -
The Glass-Steagall Act and regulation of the banks
The ideas currently under consideration by US President Barack Obama concerning the separation of the activities of investment and commercial banks recall the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933. That law formed part of a package of economic and social reforms known as the New Deal to combat the effects of the global economic crisis at that time. This was preceded by public hearings held by the Pecora Commission, named after the New York prosecutor Ferdinand Pecora, which had been established by the then Administration to investigate the failings of the US financial system that had led to the financial crisis. -
Haiti?s history since the 1990s
Today, the Republic of Haiti is by far the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere. Overall, the country is heavily dependent on financial and technical assistance from the international community. Along with the difficult economic and social challenges that have been the cause of, among other things, constant emigration in the last few decades, Haiti is characterised by great political instability. There has been only limited experience of a functioning democracy for any significant period of time, or of the country developing peacefully or of a political class committed to the common good. Haiti?s state structures remain extremely fragile. Since the early 1990s the UN has been trying to stabilise the difficult domestic political situation in Haiti through various missions on the ground. -
Freya von Moltke and the "New Kreisau"
Freya von Moltke, the widow of Count Helmut James von Moltke, passed away on 1 January 2010. She was one of the last living people to have been involved personally in the Kreisau Circle - named for the Moltke estate in what is now Krzy?owa, Poland - and its resistance against National Socialism. To keep the ideals of the Kreisau Circle alive, Freya von Moltke supported the "New Kreisau" initiatives, and was, for example, willing to lend her name to the ?Freya von Moltke Foundation for the New Kreisau?. The "New Kreisau" is also supported by the Kreisau Initiative Berlin, the Krzy?owa Foundation for European Understanding - which cooperates closely with the German-Polish Youth Office - and the Kreisau Initiative Würzburg. -
27 January - Day of Remembrance for the Victims of National Socialism
Since 1996, the 27th of January has been commemorated in the Federal Republic of Germany as the Day of Remembrance for the Victims of National Socialism. This national day of remembrance, introduced by Federal President Roman Herzog via a proclamation at the start of 1996, is dedicated to remembrance of the millions of people who were deprived of their rights, persecuted and murdered under the National Socialist totalitarian regime. The date itself commemorates the liberation of the survivors of the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp by soldiers of the Red Army on 27 January 1945. -
The spain Presidency of the European Union
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International Conventions for Preventing and Combating Human Trafficking
Human trafficking can be considered a modern form of slavery. It is a widespread phenomenon that is closely linked to organized crime but also to economic migration and exploitation as well as to discrimination based on gender or other grounds. After setting out the international legal framework for preventing and combating human trafficking this issue of the Topical Term provides a brief overview and comparison of the two major conventions in this field: The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime ("Palermo-Protocol") and the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. -
Classroom crucifixes
In its judgement of 3 November 2009, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the display of crucifixes in the classrooms of a state-run school constituted a violation of the European Convention on Human Rights. According to the ruling, this practice is an infringement of parents' rights to educate their children in line with their convictions and of children's right to religious freedom, as protected by the Convention. The German Federal Constitutional Court also used similar ar-guments in its ruling on crucifixes and crosses in compulsory state schools in Ba-varia. -
EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea region